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Over 500 years ago, a few hundred conquistadors were largely responsible for one of the most transformative events in history. They marched straight into the heart of an empire that ruled millions. They walked into a world with gods, gold, and human sacrifice and made decisions that changed history forever. Yet many have not heard this story in full as it was written. This is the true story of the Spanish march to Tenochtitlan and the conquest of Mexico. Viewer discretion is advised. In the years after Spain first settled Cuba, the island quickly became a base for exploration across the Caribbean. Spanish towns had been founded, native populations had been forced into labor, and small groups of settlers were constantly looking for new opportunities beyond the island. Gold in Cuba was limited, and many Spaniards who had come hoping for wealth found themselves restless and disappointed. Rumors circulated of richer lands somewhere to the west, places with large towns, organized kingdoms, and far greater wealth than anything yet seen in the islands. Expeditions were risky and expensive, but ambitious men were willing to gamble everything for the chance of discovery. It was in this atmosphere that a small group of settlers decided to organize their own voyage. 110 men agreed to join an expedition under Francisco Hernandez de Córdoba to discover new lands. They bought three ships, gathered cassava bread, pigs for meat, glass beads for barter, water casks, ropes, anchors, and whatever else they could afford. They paid for it themselves and took the risk upon themselves as well. One of the men who joined that expedition was Bernal Diaz del Castillo, a young soldier who had come to the Americas seeking fortune and advancement. Decades later, when he was an old man living in Guatemala, Diaz wrote a detailed account of the events he had witnessed. It will be the primary source used for this video. Before they sailed, Velázquez proposed that they raid the Guanajas Islands and bring him back Indians to be used as slaves. Bernal and the crew refused. We were, however, fully aware that it was an act of injustice which Diego Velazquez thus required at our hands and gave him an answer, that neither God nor the king had commanded us to turn free people into slaves. So they took on a priest, heard mass, commended themselves to God and the Virgin, and sailed from Cuba in 1517 into waters they did not know. Within weeks they were nearly destroyed by a storm. then on the 21st day after leaving cuba land appeared ahead of them stood a large town near the coast much greater than anything they had seen in cuba bernal says they called it great cairo

because of its size it was their first sign that this country was not like the islands they already knew soon large canoes came out from shore carrying men dressed in cotton mantles they seemed confident and intelligent. Some came aboard, accepted food and beads, and by signs invited the Spaniards ashore. The Spaniards followed carefully, armed with crossbows and matchlocks. For a while, the invitation seemed friendly. Then as they passed near rocky ground, the chiefs suddenly shouted and warriors rushed from ambush. A storm of arrows fell on them at once. Fifteen Spaniards were wounded in the first moments. It was the first hard lesson of the expedition. These were not naked islanders armed with clubs. They were organized fighters. The Spaniards beat them back with swords, crossbows, and gunfire, and found nearby stone temples with idols inside and small ornaments of low-grade gold, and the country seemed richer and more settled than any they had yet seen. Sailing farther west they landed again near Campeche to take on water. There they were led into another temple precinct where they saw fresh blood on the altars. Figures of serpents and gods painted on the walls and priests with long hair clotted together with blood. Bernal says they had never before seen anything like it. At this moment, ten Indians came running out of another temple, all dressed in long white robes, while the thick hair of their heads was so entangled and clotted with blood that it would have been an impossibility to have combed or put it in order without cutting it off. these papas brought with them a kind of incense which looked like resin and is termed by them copal they had pans made of clay filled with glowing embers and with these they perfumed us they also gave us the understanding by signs that we should leave their country before the bundles of reeds should be consumed, otherwise they would attack and kill every man. The Spaniards decided to retreat, return to their boats, and continued along the coast. Not long after, they came to the Maya city of Champotan in Tabasco. There, while they were trying to fill their casks at the wells, large numbers of warriors gathered in silence at dawn the attack began it was fierce from the first volley they were not expecting it and Bernal says more than 80 men were wounded in the opening assault their captain Hernandez de Cordoba was hit again and again Bernal himself was badly wounded and he described a horrific scene the whole of us were wounded many shot through the neck and more than 50 of our men were killed in this critical situation we determined to cut our way manfully

through the enemy's ranks and make for the boats which fortunately lay on the coast near at hand we therefore firmly closed our ranks and broke through the enemy at that moment you should have heard the whizzing of their arrows but a still more serious misfortune awaited us for as we made a simultaneous rush to our boats they soon sunk or capsized so that we were forced to cling to them as well as we could and in this manner by swimming we strove to make the best of our way to the small vessel which was now in all haste coming up to our assistance many of our men were even wounded while climbing into the vessel but more particularly those who clung to its side for the Indians pursued us in their canoes and attacked us without intermission with the greatest exertions and help of God we thus got out of the hands of these people after we had gained our vessels we found that 57 of our men were missing besides the two whom the Indians had carried off alive and five whom we had thrown overboard who had died in consequence of their wounds and extreme thirst the battle lasted a little longer than half an hour bernal says that after this fight nearly every man left alive was wounded they had no water and their suffering on the voyage back was so severe that they held axe blades in their mouths to cool their tongues one of the ships had to be burned because there were not enough healthy men left to work it when they reached the coast of florida in desperate need of water a party went ashore with casks and tools. They found fresh water at last, but were attacked there too. Even after all they had already endured, more men were wounded, one disappeared, and another died after drinking too much too quickly from sheer thirst. Eventually, the survivors made it back to Cuba. Their captain died soon after of his wounds. More men died after landing. Out of that first venture After West, Bernal says they lost 70 men in all. They had spent everything they had and returned poor, wounded, and reduced almost to beggars. Yet they had seen enough to change everything. They had found a country with stone buildings, temples, towns, cotton clothing, organized armies and traces of gold. News of it spread quickly through Cuba and beyond. Men began to speak of those western lands as richer than any yet found. And so, though the first voyage had nearly destroyed them, it did not put an end to the matter. It only made others want to go back. In 1518, the governor of Cuba, Diego Velazquez, decided to send another voyage to the mainland of Yucatan. This time the expedition would be better organized and more cautious. He placed the command in the hands of Juan de Grijalva, a capable officer and a relative of his own.

On April 5, 1518, the four ships sailed from the harbor of Matanzas after attending mass. After several weeks at sea, they reached the island of Cozumel. When the Spaniards landed, the inhabitants fled in fear. Only two men were found hiding among the maize fields. Through interpreters taken on the earlier voyage, Grijalva tried to reassure them and sent them to summon their local chief, but the villagers never returned. After a short stay, the expedition sailed onward. Eight days later, they reached Champotón, the very place where Cordoba's men had suffered their worst defeat the year before. This time the Spaniards came prepared. When the warriors gathered along the shore to oppose them, Grijalva's men attacked with firearms and crossbows. After a hard fight, the defenders were driven back, though many Spaniards were wounded and several killed. They sailed on until they reached the wide mouth of another great river. This was the Tabasco River, which the Spaniards would soon rename the Grialva. Warriors appeared in canoes and began preparing for battle, but instead of attacking, the Spaniards attempted negotiation. Through interpreters, they offered peace and trade. After tense discussions, the local chiefs agreed. Food was brought, incense was burned in ceremony, and small gifts of gold ornaments and cotton cloth were exchanged. The chiefs spoke of richer lands farther west, where gold was plentiful. Encouraged by the news, Grijalva ordered the ships to depart the river and continue their voyage along the coast in search of those lands. Along the coast they saw towns, rivers, and distant mountains, some with snow on their peaks. At one river people waved white flags and called them ashore. Bernal Diaz says Motekasuma had already heard of the strangers and ordered local rulers to meet them in trade. In six days the Spaniards collected about 1,500 pesos in gold confirming the land's wealth nearby they found something darker on a small island stood temples filled with idols outside lay five recently sacrificed men their chests opened and the ground still bloody we found two houses which were strongly built of stone and lime both were ascended by a flight of steps and surmounted by a species of altar on which stood several abominable idols to whom the previous evening five indians had been sacrificed their dead bodies still lay there ripped open with the arms and legs chopped off while everything near was besmeared with blood we contemplated this site in utter astonishment and gave this island the name of isla de sacrificios not long after they reached the harbor they named san juan de ulua there too they found a temple and priests and there too they found fresh sacrifice this time it was two boys

here we found a temple on which stood the great and abominable looking god surrounded by four indians dressed in wide black cloaks and with flying hair these were priests who had that very day sacrificed two boys whose bodies they had ripped up and then offered their bleeding hearts to the horrible idol. They were going to perfume us in the same way they had done their gods, and though it smelt like our incense, we would not suffer them. So shocked were we at the sight of the two boys whom they had recently murdered and disgusted with their abominations. It was now very apparent to them that they had stumbled upon a vast civilization. The expedition turned back for Cuba. After Grijalva's return, word spread quickly and Governor Diego Velasquez prepared a much larger expedition. He had ships, provisions, trade goods, and now a far stronger motive than before. He no longer wanted a mere reconnaissance. He wanted command over whatever these western lands might yield. The question was who would lead it. Several names were discussed. In the end, through intrigue, persuasion, and quiet promises, the command went to Hernán Cortés. Bernal introduces him as a nobleman from Medellín, personable, well-liked, ambitious, and already in debt. Supplies were gathered, cassava bread baked, bacon cured. By then the fleet had grown to 11 ships. Everything seemed to be going well. But back in Santiago, Governor Diego Velázquez began to panic. His advisors warned that Cortez had left secretly to escape his authority. An old astrologer even predicted Cortez would betray him. Alarmed, Velázquez sent urgent orders to Trinidad. Arrest Cortez and seize the fleet. When the news reached Cortez, he acted quickly. He gathered the officers and persuaded them that enforcing the order could divide the town and lead to violence. One official sent to stop Cortez even join the expedition cortez then wrote velasquez a polite letter professing loyalty after 12 days the fleet sailed west along cuba's southern coast toward havana while some soldiers marched overland with pedro de alvarado cortez's own ship ran aground on reefs and had to unload its cargo before it could be freed for several days the army feared he had been lost at sea when his ship finally appeared the soldiers celebrated except for those who had already begun wondering who might command if he never returned then the final preparations began mass was celebrated the horses were loaded aboard the ships and orders were given for the fleet to sail on february 10 1519 the fleet finally left cuba there were 11 ships about 500 soldiers 16 horses a few cannons and almost no

one yet understood that this small expedition was about to overthrow one of the greatest empires in the Americas. Their first destination was the island of Cozumel, just off the coast of Yucatan. Years before Cortes ever reached these shores, a Spanish ship sailing from Darien towards Santo Domingo had been caught in a violent storm and wrecked along the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. A handful of survivors reached land only to fall into the hands of Maya rulers. Most of them were quickly sacrificed. but two men survived one was geronimo de aguilar a spanish friar who managed to preserve his life by submitting completely to captivity for eight long years he lived among the maya as a slave learning their language while clinging to his christian faith the other survivor took a very different path his name was gonzalo guerrero over time guerrero rose within maya society he married the daughter of a local chief adopted maya customs tattooed his body pierced his ears and became a respected warrior he had children and held a position of honor among his new people the spaniards later learned that it was guerrero who organized the attack that took captain cordoba's life years earlier when cortez learned that spaniards were living somewhere inland he sent messengers asking them to return aguilar came immediately when he reached the coast he was so thin and weathered that the spaniards barely recognized him as one of their own but he could speak maya fluently and soon became an invaluable interpreter for the expedition guerrero refused he told the messengers that he was now a husband a father and a captain among the Maya. His face was tattooed, his ears were pierced, and his children would be mocked if he returned to the Spaniards as a stranger. He had chosen his new life and would not abandon it, and so the expedition gained Geronimo de Aguilar, a man whose knowledge of the Maya language would become crucial. By the middle of March in the year 1519, Cortes and his fleet reached the mouth of a great river on the coast of what is now Mexico. The larger ships could not safely enter the river so they anchored offshore the smaller vessels and boats carried the soldiers inland toward a landing place lined with palm trees the same place where the expedition of grijalva had landed months earlier but this time the reception was different along the shore among the trees the spaniards could see armed warriors waiting bernal diaz says that more than 12 000 warriors had gathered near the town itself. The Tabascans had been mocked by neighboring tribes for allowing Grijalva to leave peacefully the year before. This time they intended to prove

they were not cowards. Cortes tried diplomacy first. He had Geronimo de Aguilar speak to them in their language, assuring them that the Spaniards had come peacefully to trade, take water, and share food. But the answer came back harsh and clear. They were not welcome. If the Spaniards tried to land, they would all be killed. Cortes made one last formal attempt to avoid battle. Before the fighting began, he ordered the royal secretary to record that the Indians had been offered peace. If blood was shed, the guilt would be theirs. Then the arrows began falling. The warriors surged forward in canoes and from the shoreline, shouting and beating drums. The Spaniards were forced to jump into the water, and fight while wading ashore, sometimes waist-deep in mud. Bernal Diaz remembers how difficult it was, we being moreover compelled for a length of time to fight up to our waists, and sometimes even higher in the water. The place where we were attempting to land was disadvantageous in another way, for the ground was composed of mud and clay, in which it was impossible to move very fast particularly as at the same time we had to defend ourselves against the enemy's arrows and the thrust of their lances cortez himself while fighting in this way was obliged to leave one of his shoes sticking in the mud in order to get on firm land we had all indeed hard work to do before we could gain the dry ground but having once obtained this we fell so furiously upon our enemies, under the cry of our patron Saint Jacob. In the middle of the courtyard stood a large ceba tree. Cortes drew his sword and struck the trunk twice, declaring the land taken in the name of the King of Spain. Bernal Diaz says the soldiers all swore to defend the claim. The first battle in Mexico had been fought, 14 Spaniards were wounded bernal diaz himself had taken an arrow in the thigh but the war was not over the next day cortez sent out scouting forces to explore the countryside but the indians were already gathering for another assault One Spanish detachment under Francisco de Lugo suddenly found itself surrounded by huge numbers of warriors. Arrows and stones rained down as they fought desperately to retreat. They sent a runner to Cortes asking for help. At that moment another Spanish force under Pedro de Alvarado happened to hear the musket fire and rushed toward the sound. The two groups linked up and managed to fight their way back toward the main camp. Cortes soon arrived with the rest of the army and drove off the attackers. Two Spaniards were killed, eight were wounded, and the Tabascans were preparing an even larger attack for the following day. That night Cortes made an important decision. He ordered the horses brought ashore. Until now,

they had remained on the ships. When they first stepped onto land, they moved awkwardly after so long at sea, but by morning they had recovered their strength. There were only 16 horses in the entire expedition, but Cortes knew the Indians had never seen them before. He carefully instructed the cavalry to wait until the right moment before charging. The next morning was March 25th, the Feast of the Annunciation. The soldiers attended mass. Then they marched toward a large open plain near a village called Sintla. There they saw the full force of the Tabascans. Thousands of warriors covered the fields. They wore cotton armor, feather headdresses, and painted their faces red, black, and white. They carried bows, spears hardened in fire. Bernal Diaz says they attacked like furious dogs, that the sky filled with arrows. They were not expecting this, and within minutes, 70 Spaniards were wounded. One man named Saldana was struck in the ear by an arrow and killed instantly. Still, the Spaniards held their ground. Muskets cracked, crossbows fired, cannon thundered the Indians fell in great numbers but refused to break the fight raged back and forth across the fields and still Cortez had not arrived with the cavalry for a moment the infantry feared the worst then suddenly through the chaos of battle horses burst onto the field Cortez and the cavalry had finally fought their way through the marshes and enemy troops blocking their path the charge came from behind the indian lines the tabascans had never seen horses before to them it looked as if the rider and animal were one creature the sight terrified them the cavalry smashed into their rear while the spanish infantry attacked from the front the great army of tabasco finally broke and fled when the fighting ended the field was covered with bodies bernal diaz says the spaniards counted more than 800 dead many more were wounded the spanish losses were remarkably small by comparison though several men and horses had been badly hurt the spaniards used the fat from a dead indian to treat their horses wounds the soldiers rested under the trees and gave thanks to god for the victory bernal diaz also comments on a strange story that circulated afterward another historian gomara claimed that during the battle saint jacob himself appeared riding a gray horse to aid the spaniards and that this miracle saved them in their hardest moment of the battle where things were looking bleak bernal diaz had this to say about the legend francisco lopez de gomara in his account of this battle says that previous to the arrival of cortez with the cavalry the holy apostle saint jacob or saint peter in person

had galloped up on a gray colored horse to our assistance i can only say that for the exertion of our arms and this victory we stand indebted to our lord jesus christ and that in this battle every individual man among us was set upon by such numbers of the enemy that if each of them had merely thrown a handful of earth upon us we should have been buried beneath it certain it is therefore that god showed his mercy to us here and it may indeed have been one of the two glorious apostles saint jacob or saint peter who thus came to our assistance after the battle cortez released several captured chiefs with gifts and an offer of peace soon delegations arrived asking permission to bury their dead. Then they brought food and gifts. The war was over. After the battle, Cortes began thinking about how to strengthen the impression the Spaniards had already made on the local leaders. Smiling to the men around him, he said it seemed clear that the people of the region stood in great awe of the horses and guns. Many of them believed these strange animals and thunderous weapons were what truly won the battles. Cortes decided he could use that fear to his advantage. He gave quiet instructions. The mayor belonging to Juan said Cedeño, which had recently foaled aboard ship, was to be brought and tied near his quarters. Then the fiery stallion belonging to the musician Ortiz was to be brought nearby, but kept out of sight. The plan was simple. Once the stallion caught the scent of the mare, it would become restless and loud, but the horses were to be kept hidden until Cortez was already speaking with the visiting chiefs. At the same time, Cortez ordered the largest Spanish cannon to be carefully loaded with powder and shot. Shortly after midday, about 40 chiefs and leaders arrived, richly dressed according to their custom. They greeted Cortes respectfully and perfumed the Spaniards with incense, asking forgiveness for the battle and promising friendship. He reminded them that he had tried many times to make peace, but their warriors had attacked instead. The Spaniards, he said served the great emperor charles who had sent them to this land those who submitted peacefully would be treated as friends but those who resisted would face the terrible power of the spanish weapons at that moment cortez gave the signal the great cannon fired the explosion rolled across the countryside like thunder the iron ball whistling through the distant hills just then the stallion was brought forward catching the scent of the hidden mare the powerful horse began to rear Cortez calmly stepped forward and ordered the horse led away making it appear that he alone controlled the fierce creature among their offerings were

20 young women one was a noble woman who had been sold into slavery after her father's death she was baptized Doña Marina, known to history as La Malinche. At first she seemed like just another captive, but she spoke two languages, Nahuatl, the language of the Mexico Empire, and Maya. Working with Geronimo de Aguilar, she allowed the Spaniards to communicate with the powerful societies of Mexico for the first time. Her role soon grew larger. Marina understood the rivalries and politics of the region and helped Cortez form alliances and avoid dangers. Before long she learned Spanish and stood beside him in negotiations with native rulers. By this point the Spaniards on the Mexican coast had realized two things. They faced a far greater power than any in the islands and they were running out of supplies. The camp near San Juan de Ulua had become miserable. The cassava bread was spoiled with worms, mosquitoes made sleep impossible, and provisions were nearly gone. Some men had already died from wounds, hunger, or sickness. Then the nearby Indians suddenly vanished. The people who had been bringing food and small amounts of gold stopped coming. The Spaniards later learned that Motekusuma had ordered them to cut off contact. According to Bernal Diaz, the emperor's priests advised capturing the strangers and sacrificing some of them. Soon after, a small delegation arrived from the Tatanac country. they dressed differently and approached with friendliness. Through interpreters they said their ruler wished to meet the Spaniards and that they feared the Mexica. This was the opening Cortes needed. He welcomed them, sent gifts back, and prepared to move north to Cuyahuitzlan where ships could anchor safely and allies might be found inland. But one problem remained. Many soldiers still believed they served Velazquez and wanted to return to Cuba with the gold already gathered. Cortes knew that if he remained Velazquez's captain, he could be removed at any moment, so he and his supporters created a new solution. They founded a town in the name of the king. That town would elect magistrates, and those magistrates would appoint Hernan Cortes as captain general and chief justice, acting directly for the crown. A formal act was written and the settlement was named Villa Rica de la Veracruz, the rich town of the True Cross. Cortes was no longer merely Velazquez's agent. He now claimed to act directly in the service of the king. The men loyal to Velazquez were furious. They said the election was illegal, the authority false, and the expedition still bound to its original purpose. Some openly refused to obey Cortes. Matters nearly came to violence. In the end, several of the leading dissenters were arrested

and put in chains. The army then moved inland through Tottenac country. Pedro de Alvarado was first sent ahead to gather maize and other provisions. His men passed through towns full of evidence of sacrifice, blood on the temples, flint knives, fresh signs that children and adults had recently been killed, the people had fled before them, but food remained, and the detachment returned with enough to relieve the camp. From there, the speckled. Spaniards marched towards Sempahuala. When they entered the town, they were astonished by its size. Bernal describes broad settlements, streets full of people, and houses so bright with fresh lime that one of the soldiers rode back to Cortes in excitement and said the walls were made of silver. The man who received them was who Bernal always referred to as the Fat Cazique. He welcomed Cortes warmly, offered food and gifts, and soon began to complain bitterly of Motecuzuma. He said the Mexicans had robbed him, oppressed his people, taken sons and daughters, and forced submission on many towns. Cortes listened carefully, and while he did not yet promise open war, he understood what was being offered. Later, the Spaniards heard in even greater detail how the Mexicans extorted tribute, abused local women, and carried off people for sacrifice or labor. Then during one of these conversations, five Mexican tax collectors arrived. The effect on the local lords was immediate. Bernal says they turned pale with fear. The Mexicans did not greet Cortez or the Spaniards at all. They went straight to the local chiefs, scolded them for receiving the strangers, and demanded 20 people, men and women, to be sacrificed to their gods so that victory might be granted over the invaders. That was enough for Cortez. He told the Totonac lords to seize them. At first, the local leaders were terrified. To lay hands on Aztec officials seemed almost unthinkable, but after much urging, they obeyed. The tax collectors were bound to poles with wooden collars around their necks. Then Cortes went further. He told the chiefs they were to pay no more tribute to Motekusuma and obey him no longer. It was the first open rebellion against the Mexica power that the Spaniards openly sponsored, but Cortes was too shrewd to let the whole matter harden into a simple break. That night he secretly released two of the captives and sent them back to Motekusuma with a carefully crafted message that he, Cortes, remained the emperor's friend and servant and that the arrests had not been his doing. The others remained in custody for appearance's sake. It was a double move, defiance in public, reassurance in private, and it worked. The Tatanacs, seeing that Cortes could humiliate Motekusuma's officials and still stand unpunished, began to look at the Spaniards as more than men.

Bernal says they started calling them beings like gods with supernatural powers. The alliance with the Tatanacs had begun. Cortes accepted this new political ally, but made one demand. If they were truly to be allies, then their idols, sacrifices, and ritual killings had to end. Bernal does not soften what he saw there. He says that in these places, human beings were sacrificed almost daily, their hearts cut out, their blood smeared on the temple walls, and their flesh sometimes eaten. They saw the local religion as monstrous, and Cortes now decided to act. The chiefs refused to touch their idols themselves. So Cortes and his men climbed the temple steps and tore them down. The idols were smashed and thrown from their pedestals. The priests howled. The warriors below began shooting arrows. For a moment, the whole alliance nearly collapsed into battle. Cortez seized the fat cazique and several leading priests, threatening to kill them all if the attack did not stop. The arrows ceased, and negotiations began again. Peace was restored, but now on new terms. The idols were burned. The blood-stained shrines were cleaned. A Christian altar was erected, a cross raised, and mass was said. Eight native women were baptized, among them the niece of the fat cazique. The outward forms of Christianity had now been planted among their first allies. Soon the army returned to Veracruz and found new arrivals from Cuba, along with troubling news. Diego Velazquez had received royal authority to trade and found colonies, encouraging those who still hoped to bring Cortes back under his control, but the soldiers wanted the opposite. They had not come to remain on the coast. They urged Cortes to march inland and send the gold already gathered to Spain, along with letters asking the king to confirm him in command. So it was done. The golden letters were sent by sea. That departure sparked another conspiracy. Several enemies of Cortes planned to steal a ship and warn Velazquez. Cortez acted harshly. Two men were hanged, another had his feet cut off, and others were whipped. As the army prepared to march inland, Cortez and his closest supporters agreed that the ships must go. The sails, anchors, rigging, and useful equipment were stripped from the fleet. The holes were then run ashore and wrecked. There would be no easy return to Cuba. The sailors would now march as soldiers. Afterward, Cortes gathered the men and spoke to them. Bernal says the speech was long and eloquent. Cortes reminded them that they had no help left behind them now, only God, their weapons, and one another. In August 1519, the army left Sempuala and marched inland.

The Totonac chiefs urged Cortes to avoid Cholula, a city loyal to Motecuzuma, and instead go through Tlaxcala, long an enemy of Mexico. They sent 40 warriors and 200 porters to help carry the cannon. The march quickly grew harsh. The army climbed from the hot coast into cold mountains of wind, hail, and freezing air. Bernal says the soldiers, used to the heat of Cuba, shivered badly clothed and poorly prepared. At a town he calls Castil Blanco, Cortes first heard a fuller description of Mexico Tenochtitlan, a city in the water reached by roads broken by bridges and surrounded by canals. Again the Totonacs warned against Cholula and urged the road through Tlaxcala. Cortes sent envoys with gifts asking permission to pass peacefully. No answer came. The messengers were seized and imprisoned, the Tlaxcalans. Hearing the Spaniards marched with Taranac allies assumed it was a trick of motekusuma and prepared for war. Still Cortez advanced. The army moved cautiously, cavalry guarding the flanks, muskets loaded, scouts ahead. Soon they reached a great defensive wall built by the Tlaxcalans against the Mexicans. Proof they were entering a hardened warlike land. Not long after a group of armed tlaxcalans appeared when spanish cavalry tried to capture one thousands more rushed from ambush and fighting broke out the spaniards drove them off and camped by a stream bernal says they treated wounds with the fat of the dead and ate dogs taken from abandoned houses the next day even larger tlaxcalan forces appeared cortez tried again for peace sending prisoners with offers of friendship the reply was arrows the battle that followed was fierce waves of warriors attacked across rough ground where cavalry struggled to maneuver at one point the tlaxcalans killed a horse and dragged it away as a trophy bernal says the plane seemed filled with warriors arrows stones and lances raining down as the spanish line nearly broke but the tlaxcalans suffered from their own numbers packed tightly together they were cut down by spanish gunfire when it ended the spaniards had survived again wounded freezing and hungry bernal says they buried their dead secretly so the tlaxcalans could not learn that the strangers could die then something strange appeared on the road a procession approached the camp carrying food and supplies four tlaxcalan envoys stepped forward, bowed deeply, and burned Copal before Cortes. They came asking for peace. They explained the war had begun because they believed the Spaniards were allies of Motekusuma, whose empire had long raided Tlaxcala for captives. The

messengers accepted the terms and left gifts of food. Women remained behind to prepare a meal for the exhausted soldiers. For the Spaniards, it came at the perfect moment. They were worn down from weeks of fighting and near starvation. The men thanked God for ending what felt like an endless war. Soon afterward, another group of visitors arrived. This time, they came from Mexico itself. Envoys sent by Motekusuma appeared in the camp carrying gold ornaments and finely woven cotton cloth. They congratulated Cortez on defeating the Tlaxcalans and offered tribute on behalf of their emperor, but there was also a message. Motecasuma said Cortes did not need to travel to Mexico. Tribute could simply be sent to the Spanish king, and the road to the capital, he warned, was long and difficult. Cortes thanked them for the gifts, but he refused the offer. He said he would visit Mexico personally. The march into Tlaxcala took place on September 23, 1519. As the army approached, crowds filled the streets and rooftops, priests burned incense, Flowers were scattered before the horses. Diaz remembered baskets of roses being presented to the officers. The Spaniards were led into large courtyards where quarters had been prepared. For the first time since landing in Mexico, they were truly safe. The Tlaxcalan leaders offered their daughters in marriage to the Spanish officers. They hoped the marriages would seal the alliance. Cortez refused the gesture at first, which confused and offended the leaders. When asked why he denied these women cortez responded i have no other reason than that i am bound first to fulfill my duty to the god whom we adore and to the emperor our master which is to require of you to abolish your idols the human sacrifices and other abominations practiced among you and exhort you to believe in him in whom we believe who alone is the true god if you are indeed our brothers, and you are really inclined to conclude a lasting peace with us. And if we are to take and keep your daughters as affectionate husbands should do, they must abandon their horrible idols and believe in the Lord God whom we adore. The chiefs were refused. Their gods had been worshipped for generations. To abandon them immediately would provoke rebellion among the people. Even the Spanish priest, Father Olmedo, advised caution. Faith, he said, could not be forced and advised Cortes to be more patient for the time being. Cortes took this warning to heart and changed the subject. He wanted to know more about the Aztec. What they described astonished the Spaniards. They spoke of a vast empire ruled by Motacusuma, armies of 100,000 warriors, a great city built in the middle of a lake, causeways, canals, and bridges connecting its

districts, and unimaginable wealth, the Spaniards listened carefully, because now there was no turning back. They had come to Mexico searching for a powerful kingdom, and at last they had found it. Soon the army would march toward the greatest city in the new world. It was during this stretch among the high mountains near the smoking volcanoes that one of the most famous episodes of the march took place. The Spaniards were short on sulfur, which they needed to make gunpowder for their cannons and muskets. They heard that sulfur could be gathered from one of the volcanoes nearby, but no one knew whether it could actually be reached. The slopes were steep, the air thin, and the summit poured out smoke and ash. Bernal says that Diego de Ordaz, always hungry for glory, asked permission to make the climb. With a small party, he went up into the heights until they reached the rim of the crater. The smoke was so thick and the drop so terrible that most would go no farther, but Ordaz pressed on and managed to get sulfur from the mountain itself, reaching the peak. From this elevation, they could plainly discern the great city of Mexico with the whole of its lake and the surrounding townships, for this mountain only lies about 48 miles from Mexico. After Ordas had well viewed everything and sufficiently enjoyed and wondered at the sight of Mexico and its suburbs, he again returned with the two soldiers and the Indians. By the time the army reached Cholula, warning signs had already appeared. Cortes had invited the city's rulers to meet him in Tlaxcala, but they sent only four common men. As they approached the great city, a decision was made to leave the Tlaxcalan auxiliaries outside of the city in order to not stir chaos. When the army entered Cholula, the reception seemed impressive. Priests burned incense, chiefs greeted them, food was brought, and crowds filled the streets and rooftops to stare at the horses in armor. Cortez acquainted them that our sovereign and master whose subjects we were was a powerful monarch who had under his command many great kings and caziques we were sent by him into this country to acquaint them in his name that in future they were no longer to worship idols make human sacrifices eat human flesh and were to abstain from committing unnatural crimes and all other abominations we had come to their town because the road to mexico lay through it whether we were going to hold a conference with the great motekusuma the tops of the houses and streets were everywhere crowded with people to gaze upon us and who can wonder they had never before seen men like ourselves nor any horses for two days everything looked peaceful then suddenly the mood changed the supplies stopped arriving the chiefs and priests no longer came to visit

it. The streets around the quarters began to feel strangely empty in some places and crowded in others. Indians passed by with odd smiles and did not behave as they had before. Cortez quickly sensed that something was wrong. The first clear warning came from the Tatanac allies. They discovered that several streets near the Spanish quarters had been dug up and then lightly covered over. At the bottom of the pits were sharpened stakes meant to cripple horses. At the same time stones had been piled on rooftops and barricades had appeared in the streets. Then the Tlaxcolans brought further news. According to them, sacrifices had just been performed. Children had been offered to the war gods to secure victory over the Spaniards. At that point, Cortes already suspected a trap, but the final proof came through Doña Marina. An old woman approached her in secret, thinking Marina was simply another captive woman among the Spaniards. She offered to help her escape. She said the Cholulans and the Mexicans planned to kill the Spaniards either that night or the following day. She explained that troops from Motacusuma were already nearby, that ropes had been prepared to bind prisoners, and that 20 Spaniards were meant to be sacrificed. She urged Marina to leave immediately and stay in her house. Marina played along, thanked her, and acted as if she might accept. Then she reported the entire conversation to Cortez. That night, Cortez called a council. Some favored withdrawing from Cholula. Others thought it would be safer to return toward Tlaxcala. But there was another argument, and it carried the most weight. If the Cholulans were allowed to set a trap like this and go unpunished, every city on the road to Mexico would try the same thing. The conclusion was simple. They would strike first. At dawn, the Cholulan chiefs, priests, and warriors gathered in the large square near the Spanish quarters. They believed the Spaniards were preparing to depart. Instead, Cortes mounted his horse and confronted them. He accused them directly of treachery. He listed the hidden pits, the barricaded streets, the hidden troops, the ropes prepared for prisoners, and the sacrifices that had already been offered. Cortez let them know that they knew of their plan to eat their flesh with salt, chilies, and the tomatoes. Cortez gave the signal by ordering a cannon fired at once the Spaniards fell on the assembled nobles and warriors in the courtyard men were cut down before they could organize a great number of these people were put to the sword and some were burnt alive to prove the deceitfulness of their false gods before a couple of hours had elapsed our friends of Tlaxcala came storming out of their camp into the town they then dispersed themselves about the town for the sake of plunder and taking prisoners

nor were we able to prevent them the following day more troops arrived from Tlaxcala who committed worse depredations so deeply rooted was their hate against Tallulah at length our compassion was aroused and we ordered the Tlaxcalans to stay all further hostilities and Cortez commanded all the chiefs into his presence when he addressed them at some length and requested them to return to their camp, which they accordingly complied with. The political effect was enormous. News spread immediately across central Mexico. A major city had plotted against the strangers from the sea, and the strangers had uncovered the conspiracy before it was carried out. Then they had broken Cholula in a single blow. That mattered as much as the bloodshed itself. It confirmed the growing fear that nothing could be hidden from the Spaniards and that they were far more dangerous than ordinary men. After the massacre at Cholula, the Spaniards paused there for about two weeks. That delay gave them time to do three things. First, they restored order in the city. The markets reopened, merchants returned, and peace was made between Cholula and the Tlaxcalans. Second, they planted a cross and preached as they had everywhere else. And third, they prepared for the next step, the one that had been hanging over the expedition from the beginning, Mexico. Cortez knew they could not remain in Cholula forever, so he called a council and agreed on a message to send to Motecuzuma. It was carefully worded, firm, flattering, and threatening at the same time. He said the Spaniards had come only to meet the great ruler of Mexico and deliver the message of their king. Then the army set out. The march toward Mexico was tense from the beginning. Cortes had already learned that Motecuzuma's spies were watching everything. Every step toward Mexico felt like stepping deeper into danger. As they descended from the mountains, more towns began receiving them peacefully. Local lords welcomed them, fed them, and quietly complained about Mexican oppression. Then came one more embassy from Motecuzuma, again with gifts of gold and cloth, again urging the Spaniards not to advance. This time Cortes answered plainly. He said they had not crossed the sea and marched this far only to turn back at the gates. They would see Motecuzuma face to face, and so they kept going. The next day they entered the causeway to Mexico, And then for the first time they saw it the city rising out of the lake the straight roads across the water the towers and temples the canoes moving everywhere the crowds gathering on rooftops and causeways just to stare at them Bernal says it looked like something out of a dream and somehow against all logic against all warning

against everything that should have stopped them the Spaniards walked into Tenochtitlan and they could not believe their eyes The roofs and temples were packed. The lake was full of canoes. Towns rose from the water on every side. The Spaniards could hardly believe it was real, and that is what makes the moment so extraordinary. They were only about 450 men. They had been warned again and again not to enter the city. Allies from Tlaxcala and elsewhere had all told them the same thing. Once inside, the Mexicans could cut them off and kill them, yet they kept marching. Partway along the causeway, more nobles came out to meet them in Motekusuma's name. Then the ruler himself appeared. Bernal describes the scene as one of immense ceremony. Motekusuma was carried in a splendid litter beneath a great canopy, decorated with feathers, gold, silver, pearls, and precious stones. His sandals were richly adorned, even with gold in the soles. Great lords walked beside him. Others spread cloths on the ground before him so his feet would not touch the earth. No one dared look him in the face. Only a few close relatives were allowed even to support him. When Cortes saw him, he dismounted and stepped forward. Through Marina, the two exchanged formal greetings. Cortes offered him a necklace of fine stones and gold. He tried to embrace him, but the Mexican lord stopped him. Such familiarity with the emperor was not permitted. Motekusuma then ordered his nobles to lead the Spaniards into the city and escort them to their quarters. From there, the procession moved into Tenochtitlan itself. Bernal says the streets, balconies, rooftops, and canals were all packed with people staring at them. The Spaniards were led to the palace of Axayacatl, Motekusuma's father. where they would be lodged. It was large enough to hold the whole force with spacious halls, fine rooms, and everything carefully prepared. Motekusuma even returned there in person, took Cortes by the hand, led him into his quarters, and hung another necklace of gold around his neck, something that astonished the Mexican nobles watching it. Then he told them to rest and consider themselves at home. Only after he left did the Spaniards fully settle in. It was one of the most astonishing entrances in military history. A few hundred foreigners, deep in enemy territory, received with royal ceremony inside one of the greatest cities on earth. But in typical Cortez fashion, he decided to make a statement of power. He ordered the cannon fired, which brought a thunderous roar across the entire city that no one had ever heard before. The inhabitants were terrified.

that same afternoon but Tekasuma visited them again this time he came in state to their quarters seated Cortez beside him and spoke more openly he said he had heard of these strangers for years first from the coast then from later expeditions and had long wanted to see them himself now after hearing of their battles at Tabasco and against Tlaxcala he believed they were the people spoken of in ancient traditions men who would come from the east and enter these lands cortez delivered the core spanish message directly there was one true god idols were false human sacrifice must end and the emperor of spain expected obedience motekusuma did not argue much theology he simply replied that the gods of his ancestors had long been honored in his land that he had already heard these ideas before and that he would not abandon the old religion so easily news arrived from the coast that spaniards at vera cruz had been attacked several had died and one horse had been killed cortez and his closest men concluded they were in terrible danger inside mexico surrounded by a huge city cut off from allies and dependent on montezuma's goodwill they decided on one of the boldest moves of the conquest, seize the emperor himself. Cortes went to Motekuzuma's palace with a handful of officers, accused him of responsibility for the coastal attack, and demanded that he come live in the Spanish quarters. Montezuma hesitated, argued, and offered relatives as hostages in Spain. stead, but Marina helped pressure him by warning that resistance might get him killed on the spot. At last, astonishingly, he agreed. He was escorted into Spanish custody, though still treated with outward honor. The Spaniards then brought in the Mexican commanders connected to the attack on the coast. They were condemned and burned alive in front of Montezuma's palace. To prevent trouble while this was done, the emperor himself was briefly put in chains. Vernal presents this as one of the most unbelievable moments of the conquest. A few hundred foreigners, deep inside a city, larger than any they had known, holding the emperor prisoner and executing his officers in front of his own people. I must now beg the kind reader to pause a moment upon the heroic deeds we performed and consider their magnitude. First of all, we destroy all our vessels and thereby cut off all hopes of escaping from this country. We then venture to march into this strong city, though we were warned against it on all sides. We then have the audacity to imprison the monarch of this vast empire, the powerful Motekusuma, in his own metropolis, in his very

palace amidst his numerous troops at last we even fearlessly burned some of his generals to death in front of his own palace and throw the monarch himself in chains while this was being executed even now in my old age the heroic deeds we then accomplished come vividly to my memory montezuma was about 40 years old his complexion was lighter than most and his expression could shift from kindness to severity. He was extremely clean, bathing daily, and never wore the same garments again for several days. Even in captivity he kept the habits of a king. Each day hundreds of dishes were prepared for his table with game, birds, venison, rabbits, and many other foods from across the empire. Bernal Diaz even mentions a strange dish. We were told that the flesh of young children as a very dainty bit was also set before him sometimes by way of a relish whether there was any truth in this we could not possibly discover on account of the great variety of dishes consisting in fowls turkeys pheasants and of numerous other birds and beasts during meals he was entertained by singers dancers dwarfs and jesters who performed before him when the meal ended he sometimes smoked tobacco from painted tubes and afterward rested for a time but beside these wonders there were darker things in other buildings we saw cages filled with jaguars wolves foxes and other beasts of prey these animals were fed with meat and sometimes we were told with the bodies of those who had been sacrificed to the gods afterward the bodies were cut apart, some portions were eaten in ritual feasts, while the rest were thrown to the animals kept in those dreadful enclosures. He writes that when the beasts roared together with the howling of the wolves and the hissing of serpents, the noise was so terrible that it seemed like something out of hell. After some days in the city, Cortes decided to see more of it. Our first destination was the great market of Tlatelolco. Nothing any of us had seen in Europe compared with it. The square was enormous, filled with people and goods from every corner of the empire. Each kind of merchandise had its own section. Gold and silver jewelry, feathered garments, slaves, cacao, and medicinal herbs. From the market we climbed the great temple. There were 114 steps leading to the summit. At the top we saw the idols of Huitzilopochtli, and Tezcatlipoca standing inside their shrine their appearance was terrifying huge figures covered in gold jewels and serpents of precious stones before them lay offerings of copal incense

and fresh human hearts taken from victims sacrifice that very day the walls and floor were blackened with blood Bernal Diaz says the stench was worse than that of a slaughterhouse Cortes tried to persuade Montezuma that these were not gods, but evil spirits, and suggested placing a cross and an image of the Virgin in their temple. The king did not react well to this suggestion. He answered sharply that if he had known we would insult his gods, he would never have shown them to us. Cortes reminded Montezuma of something the emperor had promised earlier, before the Spaniards had ever entered the city. At that time, Montezuma had spoken of acknowledging the authority of the Spanish king. Cortes now told him that the moment had come to make that promise real. If Montezuma wished to maintain friendship with Spain, he and the chiefs of his empire would need to recognize the Spanish king as their sovereign and pay tribute accordingly. Montezuma did not refuse. Instead, he asked for 10 days to summon the principal lords of the surrounding provinces so the matter could be discussed openly. When the chiefs arrived, they gathered for a private council with their emperor. Montezuma began by reminding the assembled nobles of an ancient prophecy preserved in their traditions. According to the stories of their ancestors, strangers would one day arrive from the east, the direction of the rising sun, and would take possession of the land. Now, he said, those strangers had arrived. The nobles swore their allegiance, though many did so with tears in their eyes. Bernal Diaz says that even some of the Spaniards were moved by the site. From that moment, Montezuma declared himself a vassal of the Spanish emperor. Now Cortes decided to demand something greater. He asked Montezuma to order every province in the empire to bring tribute for the Spanish emperor. Messengers were sent throughout the empire. Soon gold began arriving in Mexico from many directions, bars, ornaments, dust, and elaborate pieces of jewelry, but the greatest treasure of all was already inside the Spaniards' own quarters. Montezuma reminded Cortes of the hidden chamber containing the wealth of his father, Axayacatl. The Spaniards had already discovered it earlier, but had closed the wall again and left it untouched. He declared that this treasure would be his personal tribute to the Spanish king. When the hidden room was emptied, the wealth astonished everyone present. Gold ornaments, plates, and bars were piled together in enormous heaps. The gold alone, once weighed, amounted to more than 600,000 pesos. For three days, the Spaniards worked with Mexican goldsmiths, melting the treasure into bars and preparing it for division. First, the Royal Fifth was set aside for the Spanish crown. Another large share went to Cortes himself, according to the agreement made when he had been chosen commander.

After that came the expenses of the expedition, ships, horses, supplies, and payments to the garrison left at Veracruz. By the time all the deductions were finished, very little remained for the ordinary soldiers. Complaints spread through the camp. Cortes responded with speeches, promises, and quiet bribes to calm the discontent. Eventually, the anger subsided, though the resentment never completely disappeared. While the Spaniards were still arguing over gold, Another event was unfolding far away on the coast. Diego Velazquez, the governor of Cuba, had learned about Cortes' expedition and the treasure being sent to Spain. Furious that Cortes had acted without his authority, he decided to destroy him. Velazquez assembled a massive fleet, 19 ships carrying more than 1,000 soldiers, artillery, cavalry, and supplies. their orders were simple arrest Cortez take control of the expedition and send the rebels back to Spain in chains at first the Spaniards in Mexico knew nothing about this but Montezuma learned about the fleet before Cortez did messengers from the coast informed him that many ships had arrived in the harbor where the Spaniards had first landed the Emperor secretly sent gifts provisions to the newcomers. When Cortes finally heard the news, Montezuma showed him the paintings his artists had made of the ships and soldiers. The reaction of the Spaniards was strange. Instead of fear, many of them celebrated. At first they believed the fleet carried reinforcements from Spain. Bernal Diaz says that the soldiers fired muskets, galloped their horses through the streets, and praised god for sending help but cortez quickly realized the truth this army had not come to help him it had come to destroy him and now while he sat deep inside the capital of the aztec empire with only a few hundred men a second spanish army was marching against him waiting was not an option the decision was simple cortez would march out to meet narveas before narveas could reach the interior. Before leaving, he had to secure Mexico. Pedro de Alvarado was left behind with 80 men to guard Montezuma and hold the city. Cortez gave strict orders that the emperor must not be allowed to escape. If Montezuma got free while the army was gone, Mexico would almost certainly rise. With preparations complete, Cortez marched out of Mexico. His force was remarkably small, about 260 men in total, they traveled light. No servants, almost no baggage, each soldier carrying only weapons and basic supplies. The army moved toward Cholula and then the coast where Narvaez had landed. Cortez halted a few miles away and prepared for battle. Though they faced an enemy several times their number, the Spanish camp remained confident. The soldiers knew the stakes clearly.

Victory meant survival. Defeat meant the end of the conquest. That night, Narvaez allowed many of the watchmen to return to their quarters. At the same time, Cortez was already moving. The outposts were surprised and the attack began before the camp could fully react. Cortez's men rushed the guns, capturing them after only a few shots were fired. At the same time, other soldiers fought their way up the temple steps where Narvaez was staying. The fighting there was brief, but violent. During the struggle, Narvaez was struck by a lance that destroyed one of his eyes. By morning, the battle was over. Cortez had lost only a few men, while most of Narvaez's army soon joined him. In a single night, Cortez gained hundreds of soldiers, horses, weapons, and ships. For a moment, the conquest seemed secure. then messengers arrived from Mexico. While Cortes fought on the coast, Pedro de Alvarado had attacked Aztec nobles during a religious festival, killing many inside the temple courtyard. The city had erupted in revolt. The Spanish garrison was now surrounded and fighting for its life. The great city that Cortes believed he controlled had exploded into rebellion. The army broke camp and marched inland with all speed. When they reached Tlaxcala, new reports arrived the mexica had kept alvarado under constant attack several spaniards had already been killed their quarters had been partly burned food and water had been cut off cortez now reviewed his army the force had grown enormously since the early days of the expedition he now commanded roughly 1 300 soldiers 96 horses and dozens of crossbowmen and musketeers supported by 2 000 Tlaxcalan allies. It was the largest Spanish army yet assembled in Mexico. When the army reached Tenochtitlan, the silence grew even heavier. No nobles came out to greet them. No friendly allies appeared in the streets. The causeways were nearly empty, and many of the houses stood deserted. Only when the Spaniards reached their quarters did Montezuma emerge into the courtyard. The emperor congratulated Cortes on his victory over Narvaez and welcomed him back to the city. But Cortes, flushed with triumph and already suspicious of the situation around him, barely listened. Inside the compound, the soldiers reunited. Cortes demanded an explanation. Alvarado defended his actions. He insisted that the Mexicans had been planning to attack him during a religious festival. According to him, spies had warned that once the celebration ended, the Spaniards would be surrounded and killed, so he had struck first. He had attacked the assembled nobles inside the temple courtyard

before their plan could unfold. The damage had already been done. What had begun as a calculated occupation of the Aztec capital was now turning into something very different. And within days, the streets of Tenochtitlan would become one of the most brutal battlefields the Spaniards had ever faced. The fighting soon reached a breaking point. Day after day, the Mexicans attacked the Spanish quarters. Warriors filled the streets, the rooftops, and the canals. Stones, arrows, and spears rained down without pause. The noise of drums and war horns echoed through the city. Cortez realized the situation was slipping beyond control. He decided to use the one authority that might still calm the city, Montezuma. The emperor was brought to the battlements of the Spanish quarters and told to speak to his people. If he could persuade them to stop fighting, the Spaniards would leave the city peacefully. Reluctantly, montezuma agreed escorted by spanish soldiers he stepped onto the wall and called out to the crowd below when the mexican warriors saw their emperor many paused several nobles stepped forward to speak with him they addressed him with respect but their words were grim they told him the truth the mexicans had already chosen a new ruler quitlawack montezuma's cousin had been placed on the throne. The war would not stop until every Spaniard in the city was dead. At that moment, the crowd surged again. Stones and arrows began flying toward the walls. In the chaos, Montezuma was struck. The Spaniards carried him back inside. Physicians tried to treat his injuries and begged him to take food or medicine, but Montezuma refused. Grief and humiliation had broken him. within a few days he was dead even hardened soldiers mourned him many Spaniards had come to respect the emperor during the months he had lived among them bernal diaz later wrote that several men wept openly as if they had lost a father when the spaniards returned the body to the mexicans the city erupted in mourning and rage the attacks only grew more violent warriors shouted from the streets that the spaniards would soon be sacrificed to their gods their hearts would be cut from their bodies their limbs eaten at festivals their remains fed to the the animals kept in the temples. Inside the Spanish quarters the situation was becoming desperate, food was running low, water was scarce, the wounded filled every room. Narvaez's soldiers, new to the campaign, began cursing Cortes and the governor of Cuba for bringing them into such a nightmare. The Spaniards were further spooked by a prophecy from an astrologer within their ranks. Botello had, four days previously, announced that, by means of his secret art, he had discovered

that every one of us would be killed if we did not leave Mexico on a certain night. He had likewise prophesied of Cortes that great misfortunes awaited him. He would lose his property and honor, but again rise to eminence and riches. The Spaniards could no longer hold Tenochtitlan. They would have to escape the city. Preparations began immediately. The most critical problem was the broken bridges along the causeways leading out of the island city. Without them, the army would be trapped between canals filled with enemy warriors. To solve this, the Spaniards built a large portable bridge constructed from heavy beams. Tlaxcalan allies and Spanish soldiers would carry it forward, drop it across each canal, allow the army to pass, then lift it again and move to the next gap. The treasure gathered during the conquest, bars, ornaments, and melted pieces of Aztec gold was piled together in one room. Cortes ordered his secretaries to witness what he said next. The treasure, he declared, was worth 700,000 pesos, but there was no way to save it all. He would allow the soldiers to take whatever they could carry so that it would not fall into Mexican hands. Many soldiers, especially those who had come with Narvaez, stuffed their armor, belts, packs with gold the night of escape arrived it was around midnight a light rain was falling mist hung over the city in silence the army began to move the portable bridge was set across the first canal sandoval's vanguard crossed followed by cortez and part of the column a woman carrying water saw the movement and shouted the alarm within moments the night exploded with sound War drums thundered across the city. Thousands of warriors surged forward. Canoes flooded the canals. The Spaniards suddenly found themselves surrounded. The first bridge became a battlefield. In the chaos, two horses slipped on the wet planks and crashed into the canal. The portable bridge tilted and collapsed into the water. Mexico warriors swarmed the gap. Behind them, the rest of the army kept pushing forward. Soon the canal was choked with bodies. Dead horses, drowning soldiers, Plaxcalans struggling beneath the weight of baggage and gold. Men screamed for help in the darkness. Some tried to swim and were dragged into canoes. Others were struck down where they stood. The retreat dissolved into panic. Every man now fought only to survive. By the time the survivors reached the mainland near to Cuba, the army had been shattered. Cortez and several officers gathered there, exhausted and bleeding, listening to the screams still rising from the darkness behind them. Some officers begged Cortez to turn back and rescue the men still trapped on the bridges. Cortez looked back toward the city and answered grimly,

Every moment a man escaped was already a miracle. Even so, he and several captains rode back toward the fighting. Soon they encountered Pedro de Alvarado. limping forward wounded his horse gone with only a handful of soldiers left alive the rearguard had been annihilated hundreds had died at the bridges more had drowned under the weight of the gold they carried others had been captured alive, destined for sacrifice in the temples of Tenochtitlan. By the time the survivors regrouped outside the city, what had begun as a triumphant conquest had turned into a catastrophe remembered forever as la noche triste, the night of sorrows. The shattered Spanish army finally reached the safety of Tlaxcala. The Allies received them with genuine grief. Many Tlaxcalans had died fighting beside the Spaniards, and the chiefs openly wept when they saw the wounded survivors. With his army recovering, Cortes began restoring Spanish authority across the surrounding provinces. During this same period, the Mexican Empire itself was undergoing turmoil. The Emperor Quitlahuac, who had driven the Spaniards out of Tenochtitlan, died of smallpox, the epidemic disease that had begun spreading through central Mexico after the arrival of the Europeans. A new and far younger ruler now took the throne, Cuauhtémoc. Only about 25 years old, he quickly reorganized the defense of the empire and began preparing for the next inevitable confrontation with the Spaniards. At the same time, a steady trickle of reinforcements arrived from the coast. Once the province was secured and the army reorganized, Cortes turned his attention to the central problem that had nearly destroyed the expedition. Cortes therefore ordered the construction of 13 brigantines, small but heavily armed sailing vessels capable of dominating the waters of Lake Texcoco. The work began in Tlaxcala under the supervision of the shipbuilder Martin Lopez. Thousands of Tlaxcalan laborers cut timber in the nearby forests while Spanish carpenters shaped the beams and frames. Meanwhile ironwork, sails, anchors, and rigging were salvaged from the wrecked Spanish ships at Veracruz. Piece by piece the fleet that would decide the fate of Tenochtitlan was assembled far from the lake where it would ultimately sail. They prepared it as a kit and would carry them overland to be assembled at Lake Texcoco. Each was equipped with sails, oars, cannon, and crossbowmen. Spanish soldiers who had once served as sailors now became the fleet's crews. When the day finally came

to launch them, thousands of Tlaxcalaan allies gathered along the canals and shores to watch. The brigantines slid into the waters of Lake Texcoco one by Mexican war canoes that once attacked freely were now chased rammed and destroyed by the heavier Spanish ships. The cannon fire scattered large canoe formations. The assault on the city began along the three great causeways leading into Tenochtitlan. What followed was not a single battle, but a months-long siege, one of the most brutal urban wars in the history of the Americas. The Mexica fought with extraordinary determination. Their new emperor, Cuauhtemoc, had only recently taken the throne, but he proved to be a fierce and capable leader. After his command, the defenders turned the entire city into a fortress. Canals were used as defensive lines, bridges were destroyed, streets were barricaded, warriors fought from rooftops, temples, and narrow alleyways. Mexican warriors repeatedly captured isolated Spaniards alive, prisoners who were carried to the temples to be sacrificed before the gods. Several times Spanish soldiers watched in horror as captured comrades were led to the temple pyramids stretched across the sacrificial stones and killed before their eyes their bodies were then thrown down the steps the psychological effect was immense the brigantines played a decisive role they patrolled the lake constantly destroying canoes and preventing food supplies from reaching the city meanwhile the allied armies grew larger tens of thousands of warriors from Tlaxcala, Texcoco, Huexotzinco, and other enemy states of the Mexican Empire joined the fighting. Famine began spreading through the city. People survived on weeds, bark, roots, and whatever animals could still be found. The suffering worsened as smallpox, already devastating the region, spread through the crowded city. The disease had been introduced earlier in the conquest and now ravaged the population. Thousands died each week, the canals filled with bodies. Bernal Diaz later described how the water itself became foul with decay. Yet even in these conditions, the Mexica continued fighting. One of the most dramatic incidents occurred when Cortez himself nearly died. During a fierce engagement in the city, he became separated from his men and was pulled from his horse by Mexican warriors. Only the desperate intervention of nearby soldiers saved him from being captured and sacrificed. By the summer of 1521, Tenochtitlan was collapsing. The population had been reduced by starvation, disease, and months of continuous battle. Finally, in August 1521,

the last defenders were pushed into a small... northern section of the city near Tlatelolco. What remained of the population crowded into this final refuge. The suffering there reached unimaginable levels. The streets were filled with corpses. Starving survivors fought over scraps of food. The stench of decay spread across the lake. Bernal Diaz later wrote that the smell was so overwhelming that many soldiers could barely endure it. On August 13th, 1521, the final resistance ended. Quotemoc attempted to escape across the lake in a canoe, but was intercepted by Spanish brigantines. He was captured and brought before Cortes. According to the chroniclers, the young emperor spoke calmly when he was presented to the Spanish commander. He reportedly told Cortes, you have done what you wished with this city. Now take the dagger at your belt and kill me. Cortes refused. The last emperor of the Mexica was taken prisoner. After nearly three months of siege and more than two years of campaigning, Tenochtitlan had fallen. Estimates of the total death toll vary widely, but many historians believe that over 200,000 people may have died during the siege and its aftermath. path. But one mystery remained. The Spaniards still believed the Mexica had hidden a vast treasure, gold, jewels, and tribute collected over generations. Cortes demanded to know where it was. The captured emperor, Cuauhtémoc, refused to speak. Their feet were placed over burning oil in an attempt to force them to reveal the location of the treasure. Even then, the emperor reportedly remained silent. The emperor is said to have answered calmly, am I in some pleasure bath? The treasure was never fully recovered. Much of the gold that had once existed in the empire had been lost, melted down, hidden, or thrown into the lake during the chaos of the conquest. Yet the fall of Tenochtitlan marked the birth of a new political order. On the ruins of the Mexica capital, the Spaniards soon began building a new city, Mexico City. It would become the center of Spanish rule in the Americas. In less than three years, a small Spanish expedition, supported by thousands of indigenous allies and aided by disease, political divisions, and military technology, had overthrown one of the most powerful states in the Americas. Bernal Diaz concludes this section of his memoirs by writing, thanks be to God and the Blessed Virgin who saved me from being sacrificed to the idols and from so many perils and thereby rendered it possible for me to write this history we added the immense territory of New Spain to the Spanish crown without his majesty knowing anything about it and it is for this reason I have written these memoirs that the great

important and excellent services which we have rendered to God our emperor and to the whole of Christendom may become known. And I think when everything is put into the same scale and weighed according to its quantity, we shall be found equally deserving of remuneration as those cavaliers of previous times. Thank you so much for watching my videos. I really appreciate it. If you'd like to support my work, please join my school community. You'll get to see a live look of me creating daily in there. Whatever project I'm working on next, I will be working on it and uploading it to school members and I have nine courses in there that show you exactly my workflow exactly how I make these videos and to be a great way to support this channel I'm also going on tour with the legendary Luke Caverns and Michael Collins from Wandering Wolf Productions we're going to Ancient Greece and get ready I'm about to have a whole series about Ancient Greece here very soon that's what we're going on to next and that'll be in November 2026 we hope you'll join us on tour. That's going to be a lot of fun. We're going to have a good time. I'll have that linked in the bio. And then please, if you'd like to support my work further, check out these Mirway Maps. This one right here is a National Park 3D Relief Map from Mirway Maps. Use my link in the bio and please give me credit in the post-purchase survey. Everybody, thank you so much. Just by watching my videos, you're already supporting this channel so much. I'm just getting started. The AI is getting better. My skills with it are getting better. And I cannot wait to show you what I'm going to make next. Thanks, everybody. Please like and subscribe and ring that notification bell. Take care, everyone.